Edward the Confessor becomes king
Edward, son of Ethelred, became king after years of exile in Normandy. He ruled until 1066 and died without children.
Timeline
The key dates for every topic, in order. Learn the date as it is written here, and what happened and why it matters: precise dates make your answers more convincing.
168 events
Anglo-Saxon and Norman England, c1060–88
Edward marries Edith Godwin
Edward married Earl Godwin's daughter, Edith, which tied the powerful house of Godwin closely to the crown.
The Godwins are exiled
After a quarrel with King Edward, Godwin and his sons were sent into exile.
The Godwins return in force
The Godwins returned with an army, and Edward had to give back their lands, showing how powerful they were.
Harold becomes Earl of Wessex
When Godwin died, his son Harold Godwinson became Earl of Wessex, the most powerful man in England after the king.
Tostig becomes Earl of Northumbria
Harold's brother Tostig was made Earl of Northumbria, extending the Godwins' power to the north.
Harold's campaign in Wales
Harold and Tostig led a successful campaign against the Welsh, adding to Harold's reputation as a war leader.
Harold's embassy to Normandy
Harold visited Normandy (some historians date it to 1065). Norman sources say he swore an oath to support William's claim.
The rising against Tostig
Northumbrian thegns rebelled and outlawed Tostig. Harold agreed to their demands, and Tostig was exiled, becoming Harold's enemy.
Edward the Confessor dies
Edward died without children. English sources say he named Harold as his successor on his deathbed.
Harold Godwinson is crowned
The day after Edward's death, Harold was crowned in Westminster Abbey with the Witan's support.
Hardrada and Tostig land in the north
Harald Hardrada of Norway and Tostig sailed up the Ouse towards York with a large fleet.
The fyrd is sent home
With its food used up, Harold's fyrd was sent home from the south coast, leaving it unguarded.
The Battle of Gate Fulford
Hardrada and Tostig defeated Earls Edwin and Morcar outside York, weakening their armies.
The Battle of Stamford Bridge
Harold surprised and defeated the Norwegians. Hardrada and Tostig were killed, but Harold's army was weakened.
William lands at Pevensey
William landed unopposed on the south coast while Harold was still in the north.
The Battle of Hastings
William defeated and killed Harold. The battle decided who would rule England.
William is crowned
William was crowned in Westminster Abbey by Archbishop Aldred, presenting himself as Edward's rightful heir.
William FitzOsbern becomes Earl of Hereford
William's close friend was given a Marcher earldom on the Welsh border, with special powers to defend it.
The revolt of Edwin and Morcar
The earls of Mercia and Northumbria rebelled, but gave up when William marched north and built castles.
The rebellions in the north
Edgar the Aethling, northern rebels and a Danish fleet captured York and killed many Normans.
The Harrying of the North
William's soldiers destroyed food, farms and villages across the north, causing famine and ending northern resistance.
Robert de Comines killed at Durham
Northern rebels killed William's new Earl of Northumbria and many of his men.
Hereward and the rebellion at Ely
Rebels held out on the Isle of Ely until William besieged it. Morcar surrendered; Hereward escaped.
Lanfranc becomes Archbishop of Canterbury
Stigand was removed with the Pope's approval and replaced by Lanfranc, who led the reform of the English Church.
The Revolt of the Earls
Earls Ralph, Roger and Waltheof plotted against William while he was in Normandy. The revolt was quickly defeated.
Waltheof is executed
Waltheof, the last English earl, was executed at Winchester for his part in the Revolt of the Earls.
Robert Curthose's revolt
William's eldest son rebelled in Normandy because his father would not give him real power there.
The Battle of Gerberoy
Robert fought his father's army. William was wounded in the hand and his horse was killed.
Bishop Odo is arrested
William had his half-brother arrested and imprisoned, showing that no one could threaten his power.
William orders the Domesday survey
Facing a threatened Danish invasion, William ordered a survey of who held land in England and what it was worth.
Domesday Book is compiled
The survey's findings were written up, giving William a record of England's land, wealth and landholders.
The Oath of Salisbury
At Salisbury, all the important landholders in England became William's vassals and swore loyalty to him.
William I dies
William died in Normandy. Robert inherited Normandy, William Rufus England, and Henry money.
The rebellion against William Rufus
Barons led by Bishop Odo rebelled to make Robert king. Rufus won English support and defeated them.
Superpower relations and the Cold War, 1941–91
Germany invades the Soviet Union
The German invasion brought the USSR into the war on Britain's side, beginning the Grand Alliance.
The Tehran Conference
The Big Three agreed a second front in France, and that Poland's borders would move west.
The USA drops atomic bombs on Japan
The USA became the only nuclear power. Stalin saw it as a threat and sped up the Soviet bomb project.
The Yalta Conference
The Big Three agreed to divide Germany into four zones, and to hold free elections in Eastern Europe.
The Potsdam Conference
Truman, Stalin and Attlee agreed on Germany's zones and reparations, but suspicion between East and West grew.
The Long Telegram
US diplomat George Kennan warned that the USSR wanted to spread communism, and would back down only when faced with strength.
The Novikov Telegram
Soviet ambassador Nikolai Novikov reported that the USA wanted to dominate the world and was preparing for war.
Cominform is set up
Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau to make sure communist parties followed Moscow's line.
The Truman Doctrine
Truman promised to support free peoples against communism, beginning the US policy of containment.
The Marshall Plan is announced
George Marshall offered US aid to rebuild Europe. Stalin refused it and called it 'dollar imperialism'.
Communists seize power in Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia became a Soviet satellite state, completing Stalin's control of Eastern Europe.
The Berlin Blockade begins
After the West introduced a new currency, Stalin cut all land links to West Berlin. The West responded with an airlift.
The USSR tests an atomic bomb
The Soviet Union's first atomic bomb ended the USA's nuclear monopoly and began the arms race.
Comecon is set up
The Soviet Union set up Comecon to organise trade between communist states, as its answer to the Marshall Plan.
NATO is formed
Twelve Western countries formed a military alliance, agreeing that an attack on one would be an attack on all.
The Berlin Blockade ends
Stalin lifted the blockade after almost a year. West Berlin had survived, a victory for the West.
The GDR is founded
The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic, East Germany, months after the FRG was created in the west.
The USA tests a hydrogen bomb
The USA tested a far more powerful hydrogen bomb, taking the arms race to a new level.
The USSR tests a hydrogen bomb
The Soviet Union quickly matched the USA's hydrogen bomb.
The Warsaw Pact is formed
After West Germany joined NATO, the USSR and its satellite states formed their own military alliance.
Khrushchev's 'secret speech'
Khrushchev criticised Stalin, raising hopes of more freedom in Eastern Europe.
The Hungarian Uprising begins
Students and workers in Budapest protested and pulled down a statue of Stalin. Imre Nagy became prime minister.
Soviet troops crush the Hungarian Uprising
After Nagy announced Hungary would leave the Warsaw Pact, Soviet tanks entered Budapest. The West did not intervene.
The USSR launches Sputnik
The Soviet Union tested a long-range missile and launched the first satellite, alarming the USA.
Khrushchev's Berlin ultimatum
Khrushchev demanded that Western troops leave West Berlin within six months, starting a new Berlin crisis.
The U-2 incident
An American spy plane was shot down over the USSR, and the Paris summit collapsed.
The Bay of Pigs
A US-backed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles failed, pushing Castro closer to the Soviet Union.
The Berlin Wall is built
East Germany sealed off West Berlin to stop people escaping to the West. Berlin became a divided city.
Kennedy is shown the missile photographs
Photographs from a U-2 spy plane showed Soviet nuclear missile sites being built in Cuba, starting thirteen days of crisis.
Kennedy announces a quarantine of Cuba
In a television broadcast, Kennedy announced a naval blockade to stop Soviet weapons reaching Cuba, and demanded the missiles' removal.
Khrushchev agrees to remove the missiles
Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for a US promise not to invade Cuba, ending the crisis.
The Limited Test Ban Treaty
After the crisis, the USA, USSR and Britain agreed to ban nuclear tests in the atmosphere.
Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia
Warsaw Pact troops ended the Prague Spring, and the Brezhnev Doctrine was announced.
SALT 1 is signed
The USA and USSR agreed to limit some nuclear weapons, a key achievement of détente.
The Helsinki Accords
East and West accepted Europe's borders and promised to respect human rights.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
Soviet troops entered Afghanistan, ending détente and starting a 'Second Cold War'.
Reagan announces the Strategic Defence Initiative
Reagan planned a system to destroy Soviet missiles in space, raising tension.
Study notes for Reagan announces the Strategic Defence Initiative
The INF Treaty
Reagan and Gorbachev agreed to scrap a whole class of nuclear missiles.
The Berlin Wall falls
East Germany opened its border, and crowds began tearing down the Wall, a symbol of the Cold War's end.
The Soviet Union collapses
The USSR broke up into separate countries, months after the Warsaw Pact ended. The Cold War was over.
Crime and punishment in Britain, c1000–present
The Norman Conquest
William I kept much of the Anglo-Saxon system, but brought in the Forest Laws, the murdrum fine and trial by combat.
The Church ends trial by ordeal
The Fourth Lateran Council banned priests from taking part in ordeals, which led to trial by jury in England.
Henry VIII becomes Head of the Church
Henry broke with the Pope. Religious opposition could now count as treason, as well as heresy.
The first Witchcraft Act
Witchcraft was made a crime punishable by death. The Act was repealed in 1547.
Mary I burns Protestants for heresy
Around 280 Protestants were burned during Mary I's reign, when England was Catholic again.
James I's Witchcraft Act
James I, who believed strongly in witches, made the law against witchcraft harsher.
The Gunpowder Plot is discovered
Guy Fawkes was caught guarding gunpowder under Parliament. The plotters were executed for treason in 1606.
Matthew Hopkins's witch-hunts
During the Civil War, Hopkins and Stearne led witch-hunts in East Anglia, and at least 100 people were executed.
Around 50 crimes carry the death penalty
The start of the Bloody Code: Parliament made more and more property crimes punishable by death.
The Black Act
Poaching deer in disguise or at night became punishable by death.
The Witchcraft Act ends witchcraft prosecutions
It became a crime only to pretend to have magical powers, as educated people stopped believing in witches.
Study notes for The Witchcraft Act ends witchcraft prosecutions
The Bow Street Runners
Henry Fielding set up a small group of paid men in London to catch criminals.
John Howard's The State of the Prisons
Howard's report on the terrible conditions in prisons led to calls for reform.
Transportation to Australia begins
The first convict ships sailed to Australia. About 160,000 convicts were sent there before 1868.
Elizabeth Fry visits Newgate
Fry began working to improve conditions for women prisoners in Newgate prison.
The Coastguard is set up
A new force patrolled the coast to stop smuggling.
Peel's Gaols Act
Gaolers were to be paid, chaplains visited prisons, and women prisoners were guarded by women.
The Metropolitan Police Act
Robert Peel set up London's police force, which patrolled beats to prevent crime.
The Tolpuddle Martyrs are transported
Six farm labourers who formed a trade union were sentenced to transportation for swearing an illegal oath.
The Tolpuddle Martyrs are pardoned
After mass protests and a huge petition, the government pardoned the men.
The Detective Department is set up
The Metropolitan Police set up a small department of detectives.
Pentonville prison opens
Pentonville was built for the separate system, keeping prisoners apart to reflect and reform.
The County and Borough Police Act
Every county and town in England and Wales had to set up a police force.
Public executions end
Executions now took place inside prisons, as public hangings had become rowdy spectacles.
The CID is set up
The Criminal Investigation Department brought in plain-clothes detectives to investigate crimes.
The police begin using fingerprints
The Metropolitan Police began identifying criminals by their fingerprints.
A 20 mph speed limit
The growing number of cars led to new driving offences, such as speeding.
Probation begins
Offenders could be supervised by a probation officer instead of going to prison.
Conscription and conscientious objectors
Conscription began in the First World War. Around 16,000 men claimed to be conscientious objectors, and many were treated harshly.
Driving tests become compulsory
New drivers had to pass a test, as road deaths rose.
The 999 emergency number
People could now call the police quickly in an emergency.
Derek Bentley is hanged
Bentley, 19, was hanged for a murder committed by his friend, which made many people question the death penalty.
The death penalty for murder is suspended
Hanging for murder was suspended for five years, and the abolition was made permanent in 1969.
The breathalyser is introduced
Police could now test drivers for alcohol, as drink-driving became socially unacceptable.
The Misuse of Drugs Act
Illegal drugs were sorted into classes A, B and C.
The Police National Computer
Police records became available to every force in the country.
The first Neighbourhood Watch scheme
Local people began looking out for crime in their area and reporting it to the police.
Front seat belts become compulsory
Not wearing a seat belt in the front became a driving offence.
The first DNA conviction
DNA profiling was used to convict a murderer for the first time.
Hand-held phones banned while driving
Using a hand-held mobile phone while driving became an offence.
Whitechapel, c1870–c1900
The Artisans' Dwellings Act
Slum areas could now be bought and cleared, which led to the Peabody Estate in Whitechapel.
The CID is formed
The Metropolitan Police's Criminal Investigation Department gave London plain-clothes detectives.
The Peabody Estate opens
Clean, healthy flats replaced slums near Royal Mint Street, but rents were too high for the poorest people.
Pogroms in the Russian Empire
Violent attacks on Jewish communities led many Jewish people to flee, and many settled in Whitechapel.
Sir Charles Warren becomes Commissioner
A former army officer, Warren ran the Metropolitan Police in a military style.
Bloody Sunday
Police and soldiers broke up a protest in Trafalgar Square on Warren's orders, damaging trust in the police.
Mary Ann Nichols is murdered
The first of five women murdered in and near Whitechapel in 1888.
The Whitechapel Vigilance Committee is set up
Local businessmen led by George Lusk organised patrols and a reward, showing a loss of confidence in the police.
Study notes for The Whitechapel Vigilance Committee is set up
Annie Chapman is murdered
The second of the five women murdered in 1888.
Punch publishes 'Blind Man's Buff'
A cartoon mocked the police as blindfolded and helpless, showing public criticism during the murders.
Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes are murdered
Two women were murdered on one night; Eddowes in the City, so the City of London Police investigated too.
Study notes for Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes are murdered
Sir Charles Warren resigns
Warren resigned after strong criticism of the police during the murders.
Mary Jane Kelly is murdered
The last of the five women murdered in 1888. The killer was never caught.
Booth's survey of East London
Charles Booth published his survey of poverty in East London, a key source for Whitechapel.
Weimar and Nazi Germany, 1918–39
The Kaiser abdicates
Kaiser Wilhelm II gave up the throne and fled. Germany became a republic.
The armistice is signed
The new government ended the fighting. Nationalists later called its leaders the 'November Criminals'.
The Weimar Constitution
Germany became a democracy, with proportional representation and the President's emergency powers under Article 48.
Hitler joins the German Workers' Party
Hitler joined the small DAP in Munich and soon became its best speaker.
The Spartacist Revolt
Communists tried to seize power in Berlin, but were crushed by the Freikorps.
Germany signs the Treaty of Versailles
Germany lost land, its army was limited, and it had to accept blame for the war and pay reparations.
The Twenty-Five Point Programme
The party set out its aims and was renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party.
The Kapp Putsch
Freikorps seized Berlin, but a general strike by workers made the putsch collapse.
Hitler becomes Nazi leader and forms the SA
Hitler took control of the party and set up the SA, its private army of storm troopers.
Reparations are set
Germany's reparations were set at £6,600 million.
Hyperinflation
Prices rose out of control and money became almost worthless. People with savings lost everything.
France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr
After Germany failed to pay reparations, troops occupied its main industrial area, leading to hyperinflation.
The Rentenmark is introduced
Stresemann's new currency ended hyperinflation and restored confidence in German money.
The Munich Putsch
Hitler tried to seize power in Munich, but failed. His trial made him famous.
The Dawes Plan
Reparations were spread over a longer time, and US loans helped German industry recover.
The Locarno Pact
Germany accepted its western borders and was treated as an equal again.
The Bamberg Conference
Hitler defeated the party's more socialist members and became its unchallenged leader.
Germany joins the League of Nations
Germany was given a permanent seat on the League's Council, as one of the great powers.
Unemployment insurance begins
Workers paid into a scheme that gave them money if they lost their jobs.
The Nazis win 12 seats
During the Golden Years, the Nazis won only 12 seats in the Reichstag.
The Young Plan
Germany's total reparations were reduced, and it was given longer to pay.
The Wall Street Crash
American banks recalled their loans, and the German economy collapsed into depression.
The Nazis win 107 seats
With unemployment rising, the Nazis became the second largest party.
The Nazis become the largest party
The Nazis won 230 seats, about 37% of the vote, but Hindenburg refused to make Hitler Chancellor.
The Concordat
Hitler agreed with the Pope not to interfere with the Catholic Church, a promise he later broke.
Hitler becomes Chancellor
Persuaded by von Papen, Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor, believing he could be controlled.
The Reichstag Fire
Hitler blamed the communists. An emergency decree suspended people's rights, and thousands of communists were arrested.
Dachau concentration camp opens
The first concentration camp held political opponents without trial, in brutal conditions.
The Enabling Act
The Reichstag gave Hitler the power to make laws without it for four years.
The boycott of Jewish shops
The SA stood outside Jewish shops and businesses, telling people not to buy from them.
The book burnings
Students and Nazis burned books by Jewish, communist and other banned writers.
Germany becomes a one-party state
A law made the Nazi Party the only legal party.
The Night of the Long Knives
The SS killed Röhm, other SA leaders and other opponents, securing the army's support for Hitler.
Hindenburg dies and Hitler becomes Führer
Hitler combined the posts of Chancellor and President, and the army swore loyalty to him personally.
The Nuremberg Laws
Jewish people lost their citizenship, and marriages between Jewish and non-Jewish Germans were banned.
The Berlin Olympics
The Nazis used the Games to show the world a strong, modern Germany.
The Hitler Youth Law
The Hitler Youth became the only legal youth organisation.
Pastor Niemöller is arrested
Niemöller, a leader of the Confessing Church, was held in concentration camps until 1945.
Kristallnacht
Organised attacks on Jewish people, homes, shops and synagogues across Germany marked a turn to open violence.