Conscientious objectors

In 1916, the government brought in conscription: men of fighting age had to join the armed forces. Some men refused because their religion or conscience told them that killing was wrong. They were called conscientious objectors (COs).

The law allowed men to apply to a tribunal for exemption. Around 16,000 men claimed to be COs.

• Alternativists agreed to do non-fighting work, for example in the Non-Combatant Corps.
• Absolutists refused to do anything to support the war.

COs were often treated harshly:

• Tribunals were often hostile, and many applications were rejected.
• Thousands of absolutists were sent to prison, where conditions were very harsh. Some died.
• In 1916, some COs who had been sent to the army in France were sentenced to death for refusing orders. Their sentences were changed to long terms in prison.
• Many faced public hatred. They were called cowards, and in 1918 they lost the right to vote for five years.

Cause: in a desperate war, refusing to fight was widely seen as cowardice, and a challenge to authority.

Conscription was brought in again in 1939. This time, around 60,000 men claimed to be COs, many more than in the First World War.

Change:

• Tribunals were generally fairer, and more applications succeeded.
• Most COs did important non-fighting work, such as farming, working in hospitals, or serving in ambulance or bomb disposal units.
• Far fewer were sent to prison, although some still faced hostility, and some lost their jobs.

Causes: lessons had been learned from the First World War; the public better understood COs; and the government needed workers for the war effort.

Change and continuity: in both wars, refusing to fight was treated as a challenge to authority. But between the wars, attitudes changed. Society became more willing to accept that people had a right to follow their conscience, as long as they contributed in other ways.

Significance: the treatment of COs shows how the definition of what counts as an unacceptable crime against authority can change with public attitudes, even within one generation.